The EU: a model impossible to export?
22.03.2007 - 17:42 CET | By Renata Goldirova
EUOBSERVER / BRUSSELS – During its 50-year-long journey, the European Union – itself striving to become a key global player speaking with one voice – has been promoting the idea of regional integration to other parts of the world.

But is it at all possible to export the EU model beyond its borders?

Since the 1990s, EU external relations policy includes the promotion of regional integration and cooperation in other parts of the world. The main reason behind this is to share a recipe that has already proved successful by paving the way to peace and wealth in Europe.

By now, the EU has - more or less - served as a model to regional groupings in Africa, Asia and Latin America, although none of these has come anywhere close to creating anything like the European set-up.

Over half a century, the EU has evolved from a purely economic community to a recognized political player, with powers divided between the European Commission (the executive body), the Parliament (the only directly-elected body), and the Council (representing EU governments).

Currently the 27-nation bloc has its own free-trade internal market, a single currency (in 13 EU states) and a series of treaties, which with time have extended and deepened mutual cooperation.

To become a part of the bloc, strict political and economic criteria must be fulfilled.

Africa's specifics
The African Union was modelled on the European Union five years ago, in 2002, with some of its structures appearing to mirror EU-style integration.

Currently a 53-nation bloc, it is organized around three institutions - the African Commission with its president and college of ten commissioners, the Pan-African Parliament, which is aimed at becoming become the highest legislative body and finally, the Assembly composed of heads of state and government.

Eventually, the AU also aspires to adopt a single currency, to set up an integrated defence force and a human rights court.

"The European Union has served as source of inspiration", AU official Mohamed Mustoofe told EUobserver, but rejected the assumption that it was an exact copy of the EU model.

"You cannot make one-to-one transposition, given Africa's specifics such as tribal conflicts, underdevelopment, HIV or malaria", Mr Mustoofe said, adding the continent's initial priority is to achieve a strong economic playing field, while further political integration is far off.

ASEAN and Mercosur
At the same time, business appears to be the main glue holding together other regional clubs, such as ASEAN in Asia, and Mercosur in Latin America, both trying to emulate EU-style economic ties in order to gain more leverage in dealing with major powers like the US and China.

ASEAN – a club of ten south-east nations formed in the 1960s as a bulwark against communism – is set to have a free-trade zone by 2015 and also wants to draft a common legally binding rule-book.

Similar free-trade ambitions have been mooted by South America's 16-year old Mercosur. The project has been questioned by analysts however, as Mercosur's own member countries have been locked in trade or diplomatic disputes.

According to Antonio Missiroli from the European Policy Centre, promoting regional integration elsewhere "is also part of the [EU's] so-called soft or public diplomacy" as by selling its own model "the EU potentially spreads stability and increases its own credibility."

However, the ability of Africa, Asia or Latin America to act as a bloc has been very limited due to internal disputes and the EU remains a one-of-a-kind project for the time being, Mr Missiroli stressed.

Earlier this month, the chief of the Asian Development Bank also poured cold water on the idea of ASEAN becoming like the EU. "Reaching a broad political and social consensus needed to develop a far-reaching pan-Asian grand plan of regional integration does not appear feasible at this stage", Haruhiko Kuroda said, according to AFP.

'One-of-a-kind project'
According to Mr Kuroda, South-east Asia "should rely on a step-by-step, bottom-up and multi-speed approach, where a few countries can start working together on selected common issues, leaving the option for other countries to join later".

But Michael Emerson from the Brussels-based Centre for European Policy Studies is even more sceptical, saying the EU model cannot be exported, replicated or imposed in other parts of the world.

"The EU grew out from the ruins of two world wars and the European continent shares common political and democratic values, which together make it a one-of-a-kind project," Mr Emerson said.
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Yana Popkostova

Definition
In the economic literature privatization covers all forms of transformation of state-owned and municipal property - not only enterprises but likewise the land, and social services. Such a broad conception of privatization best fits its general definition as a process of denationalization. Privatization in Bulgaria includes at least three interrelated processes: privatization of state-owned and municipal enterprises under the provisions of the Privatization Law; privatization of the land and property of the former Collective Farms, and restitution. These three processes combine legal and institutional mechanisms for the sale and use of different types of state, municipal and cooperative property. Privatization is meant to be restructuring and modernization of the industries which will make them competitive and economically efficient.
History
In 1992, 3 years after the change of the political regime in Bulgaria, the new western oriented and democratic government passed the Privatization Act, allowing privatization of state-owned enterprises. Since February 1993, when the first state-owned enterprise was privatized, privatization has slowly been gaining momentum in Bulgaria. Despite this progress, however, the environment in Bulgaria was anything but conducive to privatization. The economic and political situations were unstable, scaring off potential investors. High inflation, high interest rates, an unstable banking system, an undeveloped financial sector, and a volatile political environment were the rule.
Bulgaria adopted its Privatization Law in 1992 - later than the other Central and Eastern European countries. (Actually, under the provisions of other Bulgarian governmental regulations, some privatization started before the adoption of the Law.) The Privatization Law favors capital privatization, i.e. sale, rather than free distribution of state property. This approach was accepted because of the belief that ownership should be transferred to persons with proper management skills and the ability to provide fresh investment.
The institutional framework was established and started operating at the end of 1992. It includes three main privatization institutions: (1) the Privatization Agency, (2) the ministries managing state participation in various areas of the economy and (3) the municipalities as owners of municipal property. The principal reason for the delay in privatization was because the responsible institutions had no strong interests in privatizing. Another reason for the delay was limited potential for Bulgarian citizens and the domestic private sector to participate in the privatization process. Large-scale privatization has been primarily accessible to foreign buyers only. These factors led to the introduction of a mass privatization scheme in Bulgaria. In May 1993, Prime Minister Lyuben Berov proposed a basic scheme of privatization through public distribution of coupons with deferred payment.
By 1995, rapid progress was being made at least in some areas. During that year more favorable conditions prevailed, including clear political support, intensive preparation, the availability of new types of financial instruments, and the simple fact that the officials responsible for privatization had nearly three years of experience under their belts. In fact, many small-scale privatization deals were finalized. Some projects were undertaken by the government to disseminate information among the general population, and to train privatization experts. These projects were grounded in the conviction that privatization and the development of the private sector are the foundation for all democratic reforms.
In early 1997, Bulgaria was on the edge of economic disaster. In order to address quickly the country's most acute problems on July 1, 1997 was created a currency board, and “Bulgaria2001” programme was developed by the government. The emphasis was put on “”accelerated, transparent and fair privatization process”, exercised according to legal principals.
Public Opinion
“Public opinion on privatization has been divided since 1990.” Each successive government prayed the same values as the one before, and supported “just privatization process”, however the widespread rumors about personal gains for politicians, corruption, and deals below the table made the population highly distrustful toward privatization (which was part of the developing trend of distrust towards politics as a whole). An opinion polls from the period show that “during the transition years, 60% to 80% of Bulgarians preferred that most of the SOEs remain state-owned”. The most striking thing though is that even at the late 90s, and at the beginning of the new century when the political climate in Bulgaria was stabilized, and the privatization process received “nationwide support”, “most people in Bulgaria preferred to work in a state-owned enterprise rather than in one that was privately owned.”
Mistakes and achievements
Most of the privatization deals in Bulgaria were completed in the period between late 1996 and 1999. The most successful deals of that period are the privatization of Kremikovci and Neftohim in 1999. Before that the mass confusion with the privatization model led to almost no privatization deals. The course of privatization was a complicated political process and an arena for fierce political discord. Conflicts related to the particular form of mass privatization to be employed arose among members of the government and was one of the reasons for the destabilization of the Government. In an effort to jump-start the mass privatization process, on September 8 1994, the government introduced in the National Assembly a bill, which amended the Privatization Law. This bill allowed Bulgarian citizens over eighteen who are permanently residing in the country to participate in the mass privatization program. The change of the model proved to be successful and resulted in 75% of the state-owned assets in 2000 to be in private hands. There is a slowdown of the privatization process in the last 5 years but that is mostly the result of the widespread privatization in the previous period which did not leave much to be privatized after that. The most substantial deal of the period after 2000 is the privatization of BTK finally in 2004.
One of the problems that accompanied privatization in the mid-1990s was that in enterprises where most assets have passed into private hands, there was no single owner with a controlling stake, which means there was no strategic investor with a strong incentive to inject much-needed capital into those companies. In most cases, individual participants and privatization funds had short-term speculative interests. The lack of viable capital markets hampered the transfer of corporate stock from passive small investors to owners of majority holdings.
With privatization developing more slowly in Bulgaria than elsewhere, it was difficult for its supporters to overcome the resistance of certain groups, such as SOE managers, government officials, and large banks. State officials were unwilling to give up their direct influence on the economy, which has effectively been blocking privatization's progress.
Another thing is the mentality of the Bulgarian nation. People were used to the state ownership and suspicious toward private entrepreneurship. Moreover, the high social expectations, followed by mass disillusionment exacerbated people’s view toward privatization. People expected higher wages and better working environment and in most cases they were either fired or displaced. It turned out that the new private owners had new demands which were not met by the old labor force.
The unrealistic estimation of the asset value added additionally to the slow rate of privatization in the past. International experts were estimating the price of a state-owned company to be far above the real market value. The large difference between the estimated price and the price at which the company was sold made the public suspicious of corruption within the government sector, and untrustworthy with the privatization process. In all of this the role of the state was not clear. The officials were not sure what kind of state they want to develop, thus there was no systematic privatization model - the method was changed with every change in government. This, accompanied with the constant change of privatization legislation made the process inflexible and full with loopholes.
Though most of these impediments were overcome there is still much to be done in the privatization process in Bulgaria in order it to be completed successfully. Still there is no overall concept of the role of the state in the process. Moreover, the perception is that the privatization process leads to private monopoly as a contrast to the state monopoly of the previous decade. The people’s suspicion and circle of criticism has to be surrounded. The integration process to the structures of the European Union, of course, made the political climate in Bulgaria more stable, and the economy more flexible and welcoming to changes. The privatization is expected to finish in full record with the European standards and the industries to be restructured and made competitive in the European market. Bulgaria’s privatization performance has been satisfactory and Bulgaria has to strive to hold and to build upon what has been achieved.

Sources:
1. “Privatization: Avoiding mikstakes of the past” – Alexander Boshkov lecture in AUBG
2. “Economic reform today: The lessons of Privatization” – Maria Prohaska at www.cipe.org/publications
3. http://www.priv.government.bg/ap/eng/content06.shtml
4. http://www.iccs.bas.bg/privat/base.html

Yana Popkostova

Abstract
Today there are thousands of different religions and worships. The modern and developed world does not impede the individual’s freedom to choose the religion that best fits his/her spiritual needs. In the ocean of various worships, striking is the fact that only few are truly “experienced” religions. Under “experienced” the author means religions that have clear historical foundations, and that have overcome the tests of the time and continue to serve their followers. The most interesting example is the Hinduism. Probably it is the most diverse, complex, open-ended, and ambiguous religion known to men . It is a religion which lays in the souls of the Indian society. It is a religion which is not hold by powerful religious organizations and ardent missionaries, but which grows together with the society like a living organism. Hinduism is internally heterogeneous, composed of thousands of different doctrines, moral norms, cults, and attitudes toward life. There are more than 330 million deities within the Hindu umbrella - one for every single human need and desire, and every man should choose which deity will be central within his life. It is an all-inclusive religion, giving everything to everyone, and presenting various paths to salvation and happiness. Hinduism is easily adaptable to the changing environment but at the same time is jealously keeping its peculiarity. Exactly this unusual relationship between tradition and modernization is of central interest to the author. Respectively, this paper will try to explain the impact of the Hinduism on the Indian society. The analysis will be separated in three basic parts. The first one will investigate the India’s complexity as a precondition for the rise and development of such a multifaceted religion. India has rich and varied history. The relationships with a variety of foreign people made through travel, combined with the existence of many contributing tribes and peoples in the broad geographic expanse of India also constitutes a factor in the development of Hinduism. The second part will provide with a brief historical and analytical overview of Hinduism which will try to imply the continuity and change within its beliefs. The last part will be a comparative study of religion and society: how Hinduism influences the eternal goals within individual’s life, how Hinduism influences the social system of the society, and how Hinduism influences the everyday life of its followers by ritualism and spiritualism. The conclusion of the paper will try to exemplify the Hindu movement today and its continuous relevance to the life of its followers in today’s industrialized and modern world.

The birthplace of a great religion

In order to be able to explain the extreme complexity of the Hindu religion the author will try to find some arguments for it within the environment where it was born. India is an exotic place, a place that has always been able to preserve its peculiarity and authenticity. A place mystic and secretive as it is, which was a topic of research for not one anthropologist and religious follower. India is too complex, geographically, ethnically, linguistically, and religiously to allow any definite statements to be made about it . From what was said above the author makes the conclusion that exactly in this complexity embedded within the Indian continent itself, within the culture and beliefs of its society is hidden the basic explanation of the complexity and all-inclusiveness of the Hindu religion. In a place where there are thousands of Gods, languages, castes and mentalities it is more than natural that a homogeneous religion will not be able to sustain. Thus, the Hinduism with its variousness serves all the different aspects of the Indian society, helping its followers being united in diversity and strong in complexity.
Hinduism lacks something which is of central importance for the other great living religions, and namely monotheism. It will be impossible even for the most stubborn researcher to find the sole founder of the religion, nor the church or the religious leader. Nor is there one holy book or one doctrine, one religious symbol or one holy center. As a result no binding authority could emerge . As complex as the Indian state itself, the basic religion there worships animals and trees together with Gods, allows spiritualism, mysticism, and sacrifices. The observer can find the commitment not to harm animals along with the bloody animal sacrifices. Nothing seems to be generally accepted (except maybe the doctrine of Karma which according to Max Weber is perhaps the only dogma of Hinduism but this will be the theme of the next part). All of these mutually contradicting practices strikingly live peaceful coexistence. In that respect one might almost say that religious postmodernism is realized in India . Here is the place to ask ourselves (away from the central topic of the paper) whether this tolerance can serve as an example for the western multi-cultural and multi-religious problems, whether the polytheism is the key to peaceful coexistence among different cultures in the developed world?
Along with the eternal tolerance enshrined in the Indian culture and Hindu religion the researcher can find a strictly hierarchical society for which the ideals of the French revolution – Equality, Liberty, Fraternity does not mean anything and does not serve the happiness of the society. In this respect India is different. Hinduism is different. The society is different. Thus, the response to the global forces that transformed the western societies completely, and led to the total isolation of religion within individual’s everyday life is different. The western religions do not serve the new needs and desires of the modern men. Their inability to adapt and to transform their rigid doctrines led to the total isolation of the religiousness of the everyday life of the materialist men. Here arises the question what is the force behind the Hinduism which makes it so powerful and eternal? How come that the Hindu religion continues to serve, and to give something to its followers across time?

Continuity and change in the belief system of the Indian society

This paper is not going to concentrate on the specific historical development of Hinduism according to different epochs and specific periods of time. The basic concentration in this part will be on the general trends in the Hindu developments which were and still are affecting its followers. Hinduism is indispensably connected to the India’s history, and it has been a subject of constant reform and revitalization in order to maintain its relevancy and cogency. As it is known Hinduism is among the oldest, and the most populous world’s living religions and it manages to hold its followers united. What is truly interesting for the Hindu religion is its ability to adapt and transform to the changing environment. New conceptions of life and the world, new gods, goals of salvation, forms of worship are developed according to the needs of the society in different periods of time. At the same time the religion stays the same and provides some niche of tranquility and stability into human’s life. Thus, the Mircia Eliade’s “fear of history” is softened and the Hindu followers can always find stability and cradle of hope into their life.
There are no specific dates and chronologies in the Hindu religion, rather there is the concept of timelessness and ancientness – sanatva. Hindus have great respect for the antiquity of their religion. The old is good, and the good is above reproach . The social codes, rituals, beliefs, and associations of Hindus are considered to comprise a sacred way of life; they are the sanatana dharma, or eternal law of the faith. There are numerous impacts on the Hindu religion throughout the years from another religious movements, tribal cults and belief movements. It is not a static religion with identifiable theology and dogmas, rather it is constantly changing and modernizing factor, it is a living organism, which grows and evolves with its followers and continue giving them hope, balance, and faith. It has been able to withstand reactions against it and to absorb influences upon it with ease and openness.
Hinduism is not a religion bound in its origins to a fixed point of time or to a personality . It was a variety of growing and grouping beliefs. Naturally enough it became not only a way of life but also a view of life . Religion is the manifestation of the most primitive of all human relationships – coming together and being together (latin:religare-“to bind together”), make the universe more understandable and reach a balance in life. Except this there is no guiding principle in Hinduism. As a religion Hinduism is remarkably flexible, permissive and inclusive in its outlook and nature. A short comparative study with the other great religions gives the important evidence of the Hinduism’s unparallel complexity. Most religions have taken the viewpoint that they and they alone are the final and autonomous norms of religiosity; they are conservative toward outside influence, variety and difference. The believers should be totally devoted to the religion and obedient to its basic principles. Contrary, the Hinduism historically stands in great contrast to the imperial claims of other religions. It has always maintained a most conspicuous attitude of tolerance and appreciation of other religions . Hinduism has expressed repeatedly its attitude toward other religions as one of complete acceptance. Most probably Hinduism is the only one world’s religion which does not have a missionary aim. It has not sought to convert non-Hindus to Hinduism.
The attitude of flexibility, permissiveness and inclusiveness which Hinduism has held regarding other religions is obvious within its own ranges as well . Different movements within the Hinduism tend to interpret the Hindu faith differently and to put emphasis on different doctrines but these distinctive movements are not in dead opposition to each other. They are tolerant and understandable. Nevertheless, there are five basic elements which bind all of these diverse beliefs. These elements constitute the essence of Hinduism and they are:
1. Belief in God.
Hindus believe in a power beyond themselves which is controlling in their lives, but they are far from agreement as to the nature of that being
2. Reverence for the Vedas
Vedas-scriptures are so diverse and comprehensive, so ambiguous and suggestive that almost every belief can refer to them.
3. The practice of rituals
Rituals are indispensable part of the everyday life of the Indian citizen. There are meals devoted to gods, sacraments, and parts of the day devoted to God. Rituals inspire people to become one with the spirit. Through rituals people achieve self-purification and deity. The most well-known ritual is the practice of Yoga (or meditation) through which the Hindu believe will reach unity with the divine, physical discipline, and liberation from the material.

4. Certain ideas that govern life
Belief in Karma (the wheel of life) – every human action or intention makes its own imprint upon the personality. A person is what he thinks and does. Karma signifies a causally moral, cosmically based law of retribution.
5. Caste
The social system in India, following the Hindu belief is caste-based. There are four basic caste: Brahmin-priestly, Kshatriyas-warriors, Vaishyas – engaged in commerce, agriculture, and Sudras – serve the other three
Moreover, all of the diverse religious movements under the umbrella of Hinduism believe in the four stages in life: student, householder, forest dweller, homeless wonderer, and in the four eternal aims n life: arthas – material gain or worldly success; kama – sensory pleasure, dharma – aims of life can only be pursued if one stays in his/her social caste; moksha – almsgiving. Thus, it is easily assumed that even in their difference the various movements have something that unites them, and prevents them from outrageous opposition. Moreover, these uniting elements serve for the harmonious social order within the Indian political system.
It is assumed that every man has the right to believe as he wishes, and respectively there should be mutual respect, acceptance and understanding. The various individuals and sects within Hinduism are each striving to apprehend the truth; each has need of the other . The most interesting facet of the Hindu religion for the author was the fact that there is no formal doctrine of heresy within the Hindu religion. Contrary to the Christianity, for example, where heresy is a central theme which has played a significant role in the determination of faith, and in the maintenance of the autonomy of religious bodies, the Hinduism is a religion which historically and presently permits nonconformity. No Inquisition has ever marked Hinduism’s history . Thus, Hinduism is not a single religion but rather a set of different religions, therefore its chief characteristic is an internal diversity . But there are some facets of the religion which are identifiable in every internal movement, namely nature worship - an effort on the part of the human beings to enlist the aid of the deities to secure happy homes, long life, success over enemies, and other worldly gains; and ceremonial exercise with sacrifices (even bloody ones). Each movement values worship as a private communication between the individual and God. Each movement strives for reaching the divine reality - liberation from the wheel of life: Karma.
More emphasis on these parts of the religion and their impact on human life will be given in the next section together with the investigation of the caste system and the karma doctrine.

Hindu religion and the everyday life of its followers: constant presence and influence

The absolutely unique value of the Hindu religion is its ability to stay constantly into the everyday life of its followers. Religiousness is the degree to which a man puts into practice the ideals which he believes in. Hinduism is a sacred and loved religion. Its presence is evident in the everyday life of its followers. The basic tenets of the Hindu religion: Truth, Tolerance, Salvation are the basic motivators in the life of the Indian society. According to these tenets the Indian individual is living his/her life and is widely rejecting opposite influences. Hindu religion law does not see all human beings as having the same value, not as being subject to the same code of law. Individual freedom is sacrificed for harmony and for society’s ultimate and eventual collective liberation . Respectively this belief is deeply embedded into the citizens’ culture and social practices and into the Indian law.
Hinduism is the comprehension of a Truth which excludes nothing and nobody; its conception of Truth includes theists as well as atheists. Hinduism is based on the “know yourself” conception. In its conception of vastness of Truth, Hinduism recognizes that there is no one road by which the human mind can reach it; therefore, its conception of the unity of religion is through its recognition of the diversity of religions .
A central value in the Hindu religion is the spirit of tolerance. Hinduism does not claim that it is the only true religion. It is tolerant to all the diverse religions and beliefs. If intolerance begins in religion, it spreads to other spheres of human life and this threatens the peace of the world . While Hinduism does not persecute anyone as an “unbeliever”, its social system has allowed and “tolerated” the practice of “untouchability.” The distinction between caste and caste, the superiority of one over the other, is a phenomena now extending to race, to the domination of one race over the other. Mahatma Gandhi stood against this division of man from man, or man against man within Hinduism and outside it in the civilized world. The Hindu attitude is that religion is a matter of personal realization. Everything else, creeds, dogmas, symbols, all these are only instrumental.
A central belief within the Hindu doctrine, respectively within the belief system of the Indian society is the concept of Karma. Behind the karma belief lays the conviction that no one can escape his/her destiny. The belief in predestination is also a decisive factor in explaining the Hindu tolerance toward other religions and worships. It has never claimed to possess the final truth and to know the true way to salvation and eternal life. Thus, the Hindu takes the position toward life that there is a principle regulating individual, physical, and moral matters in which a binding and purposeful causality is controlling . The Hindus believe in the human limitation to truth. Man must be content to know only limited reality, because the final truth is not accessible to men . Moreover the Karma concept is connected to the belief that people get what they deserve, although not necessarily in this life. Thus, the religion (Hinduism) impacts its followers (the Indian society) in their understanding of life, and helps them establish social practices to keep the Hindu society in balance – and the world in order. In the Hindu society everyone has his/her own place, and a basic responsibility for the Hindu follower is to live his/her life according to the practices appropriate for his/her social status. Thus, the balance will be preserved and there will not be any crisis in the political and social development of the state. For the Hindu followers the birth location is indicative. People born in family with higher social status are concerned to be with higher spiritual nature, which reflects one’s good karma past . Indian society is strongly hierarchical and is separated in castes (again following the Hindu faith prescriptions). There are five basic castes (as already mentoned) which are the caste of the Brahmins – master the Vedic and ritual practice; kshatriyas – rule justly and protect the Aryan Society, Vaishyas – master artisanship and trade, multiplying the wealth of the society, and shudras – the manual workers. A person is obliged to remarry into his/her own caste in order to preserve the social balance. Under each varna (class) there are thousand of subgroups, and each of these subgroups has its central duty in life called Dharma.
The Brahmins caste is very important as the holders of the special key to the deities from whom human desires are satisfied. The central philosophy within the life of the Brahmins is gaining knowledge regarding ultimate reality . Their life is dedicated to constant search of the underlying connections between god and man. The Brahmins are extremely important for the life of the Indian society since they give legal prescriptions as to how one Hindu should live his/her life so that effective social functioning will eventually be reached. These legal prescriptions include advices how to rear children, prescriptions to be obedient to one’s parents, as well as norms one should follow in order to keep the appropriate relations among the castes. The devotional exercise and attitudes is also an important part of the Hindu everyday life according to these legal prescriptions. The Brahmins central goal in life is guiding the other caste’s life and reaching Brahma – the ultimate reality. In today’s life of India they are extremely powerful since people obey political doctrines less than the Brahmins prescriptions.

Conclusions: Hindu Responses to the Challenges of the Modern World

Unquestionably the Hindu religion has been a target not only by other world’s religions seeking dominance but also by politicians wanting to control the Indian society according to political laws rather than following the religions paths. As already mentioned Hinduism is a powerful religion that appeals to a lot of people. This power comes from its surprising elasticity of form. This remarkable ability to stretch and mould according to the specific time frame is best exemplified by the Hindu reaction toward Christianity. Christianity challenges to Hinduism were numerous with the most essential and convincing one: Colonialism as God’s justification against the untrue religion. The Christian missionaries were renouncing the wrong practices and morality of the Hindu people explaining the plight of the Indian society with the wrong faith. No matter how convincing were the arguments and charisma of the Christian priests the Hindu reaction was Rejection. The Indian people did not accept the new religion but the validative response was attempts to reform the Hinduism itself. Some Hindu reformers, in their defense of the faith against the aggressive Christianity, proclaimed monotheism of the faith, which was supposed to strengthen it. Some wanted to abolish the caste system. At the end all were united by the powerful conviction that God is one only, and not two. Different people call on him by different names: some as Allah, some as God, others as Krishna, Shiva, and Brahmin. But it is one and the same thing. Opinions are paths. Each religion is only a path leading to God, as rivers come from different directions and ultimately become one in the ocean . Gandhi the most influential reformer: wanted to remove the caste system and unify the Hindus against the colonial faith and practices. Through merging the European ideas with the reformist Hindu teachings India managed to reach independence. The role of the religion in the achievement of India’s freedom was enormous and the Hinduism’s involvement within the consecutive social reform was welcomed and appraised.
India has been rapidly modernizing and responding positively to the global challenges. In this rapid development observable is the persistence of religious beliefs and practices in post-colonial India. The Indian people, deeply influenced by the Hindu religion are convinced that there is “something more” in this world than satisfaction of basic human desires. In Hindu society God is watching all of the time, respectively one should live according to his preaching in order to reach balance and happiness. That is why even today a basic place within the everyday life of the Indian citizen is the communication with God, no matter which one. Rituals (mainly those associated with pleasing the four senses of the deities: flowers – for the sense of smell and sight, goods gratifying the taste, mantras and music pleasing the hearing, and cloth pleasing the deity’s tactile sense) are performed on a daily bases, and people pray in front of the icons (geometrical figures designed to give tranquility and meditation) which are channeling the divine presence.
The belief that no one can possibly possess the highest truth and the spirit of tolerance are still essential within for the modern Indian society. Hindu gurus continue directing one’s life and practices and way of sacrificing. The classical doctrines associated with Hindu belief: karma, reincarnation, salvation are still the focus in Hindu life. Fatalism or karma causality is still the most powerful force in one’s life and influences the way one lives.
The morality is central for the live of the Hindu. Contrary to the spoiled morale and ethics in the developed world, the influence of technology, medicine, European and American lifestyles are not detrimental for the Indian civilization and its basic Hindu morale. The Indian society is adopting what may be beneficial for it, and is rejecting the totally inappropriate and different. For example, Hindu priests proclaim the connection between science and Hinduism. Thus, they have been easily adapting to the changed environment, and quick to find scientific explanations and arguments for the Hindu faith. They use video for spreading the Hindu rituals and use the new technology to proclaim or propagate the growing linkage of the religion with politics. The Hinduism has been constantly developing religion. It has always been in deep connection with its followers being present in their everyday life and thoughts. The Hinduism is also a constantly growing religion. Thanks to the Internet, the television broadcasts, the easily publishable books, and before all thanks to the enhanced interests of western societies toward the ancient wisdom of Hinduism it has been reaching mass audience and becoming more and more popular even outside the Indian continent. Reformist practices are intensified in order to keep the faith “up-to-date” and this has proved to be the most successful religious campaign in the modern world.
Hindus believe that in the current era (Kali Yuga) human life moves from bad to much worse: Brahmins become unworthy, the Vedas are forgotten, castes mix unlawfully, and life spans decrease due to famine, war, and hunger . This can only be changed by the devotional practices of true believers. The complete abandonment of the ego is required in order for the Indian society to confront the global catastrophe of morality and ethics.

Epilogue

This paper was devoted to the aim of presenting the indispensable part of Hinduism within the development of the Indian society and state. Moreover, it made an attempt to exemplify the powerful role religion can play for the transformation of a society towards a higher, modernized level of establishment while preserving the moral order and social practices. Hinduism helped the Indian society combine modernization and traditionalism and presented a striking cultural continuity with the past. Contrary to the highly developed western society, the Indian one has something that is far more valuable than the material success, and namely – spiritual balance. The devotion to something which is higher than our earthy life gives the Indian people some spiritual satisfaction and harmony, which is so needed within the secular western societies. Maybe this is the right formula for success – both material and spiritual, maybe this is the explanation for the growing interest within the western societies towards the Asian wisdom, and maybe exactly this wisdom will help the western societies overcome their material fanaticism and spiritual emptiness. Time will show the answers to these questions, and time will show whether tolerance towards the different can find its place in the world’s politics.

References:

1. Justice, Christopher; Dying the Good Death: the Pilgrimage to die in India’s Holy City; State University of New York Press, 1997; pp. 140-197
2. Chennakesavan, Sarasvati; A Critical Study of Hinduism; Asia Publishinh House, 1974; pp.1-38
3. Stroup, Herbert; Like a Great River: An Introduction to Hinduism; Harper&Row Publishers, 1972; pp.1-60
4. Michaels, Axel; Hinduism: Past and Present; Pinceton University Press, 2004; pp.3-31; pp.71-113
5. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1998/e_asia/i4hindut.pdf
6. http://www.hindubooks.org/sudheer_birodkar/hindu_history/beliefs.html
7. Singer, Milton; When a Great Tradition modernizes

Yana Popkostova

Definition
In order to understand what is the role of gender in the belief systems of the post-industrial society one needs to be clear about two issues:
1. What is gender?
2. What is a “belief system”?
By answering to these two questions one will be more able to analyze how the significance of gender issues within the society has changed across time, and what stage has it reached in today’s societies. Moreover, it will be useful to define these terms so that it will be easier to compare the role of gender in people’s values and morale in different periods of history development.
Gender is a term generally defined by the American Heritage Dictionary as "classification of sex.” When mentioning this word the first thing that most of the time occurs to one’s mind is prejudice. Even today we are witnesses to situations in which one sex is preferred or favored over the other for particular job or responsibility. This inclination or preference refers to our belief systems, and presents a complex and constantly debatable issue. The belief system of a particular society is basically the way in which this society looks at the world around it. It is an organized way of trying to explain the world around us. It is something that distinguishes human beings and becomes an integral part of culture.1
1. http://hsc.csu.edu.au/society_culture/belief_systems/nature/2500/BSNatureofbeliefSystems.html
Historical analysis
The role of gender in traditional belief systems is a topic that has gained importance in the last century. With the advance of technology, with the destructions caused by the wars, with the design of the modern welfare state the importance of the gender, or more correctly the importance of the equality between males and females gained priority in everyday social and political discourse. Moreover, the emergence of feminism as a leading belief system in the 20th century made the importance of gender even more central for the cultural development of the nations.
1. Pre-Industrial societies
In the pre-industrial societies there was a strict separation of the occupations and activities allowed for male and female persons. It was considered that the women are incapable of exercising certain activities. Those activities though were not only part of the physical domain, but also of the mental and psychological one. Most of
the societies were patriarchically organized and the place of the woman was far away
from political and economic matters. The education was not widely accessible for women, the suffrage rights were limited (if existent), the employment of women in factories was scarce: all of these serves as an argument for the belief that there was inequality between the sexes. It was enshrined into the belief system of the people at this period of time that the women were below the man both in physical and mental abilities. This belief was further supported by the religion. In the pre-industrial societies the two dominant world religions: Christianity and Islam did not place women at the same level as men, did not allow women to take high positions within the church, and preach that the sole responsibility in woman’s life is to serve the man. In these societies there was almost no separation between the church and the state, and the religion was of central importance within people’s everyday life. Thus, the belief that there is an inequality among the sexes was widespread and deeply embedded in people’s values and worldviews. With the advent of the 20th century though this general belief has started to blur away thanks to some new developments.
2. The achievements of the 20th century as a precondition for abandoning the old beliefs
At the end of the 19th century the rapid development of new technologies, opening up of modern industries, increased use of machines and modern equipment and the importance of economic efficiency displaced the old beliefs, and arranged the society according to new priorities. The labor-intensive production gave rise to increased employment of women, as well as increased training and education allowed to female workers. Moreover, in this time of economic centrality when the material became more important than the spiritual the religion was pushed aside of everyday life. In the West the secular state started governing the society according to new rules: less spiritual and more directed towards democratic rights and economic efficiency. With the diminished importance of religion in everyday’s life people started forgetting the principles of inequality embedded within the Christian tradition. In respect to the Islamic countries, unfortunately there the emancipation development has been slower than in the western world. The widespread belief that the women should be obedient to the men is still valid in the East even today. Despite this belief though, in some Asian countries (Turkey as a valid example), the desire to catch up with the West politically, socially, and economically gave rise to respect towards women’s rights and increased opportunities for women’s education and career advancement. Thus, it will not be wrong to assume that even in the Asiatic and predominantly Muslim communities the feminist development is gaining momentum and soon there will be reached approximate equality between the sexes.
With the rise of the 20th century came the catastrophes of the two world wars. What happened during the wars was an increased need of women. Most of the men were at the fronts so the only labor force left was female. Women were working at factories, women were producing weapons, and women alone were taking care of their reduced in size families. This trend continued after the wars as well. Millions have died during the two world wars and most of them were men, whose absence had profound and devastating consequences for those who remained in the post-war world2. During the fighting gender roles has changed dramatically, as women and children fended for themselves without fathers and husbands.3 With the separation of the world into two competing ideologies there was clear distinction in the belief systems in the eastern and the western world spheres. But one identical belief were noticed in the two competing ideologies. Both the capitalist and the communist proponents recognized the equality between the genders. In the communist east the opportunities for women employment increased radically. The fulfillment of the economic plans and the forced industrialization based on labor-intensive production needed the use of any human resources possible. Moreover, the educational institutions opened their gates for female students who start
2. Mark Mazower, The Dark Continent, Health Bodies, Sick bodies, pp.233-245
3. Mazower, Mark, The Dark Continent, Health Bodies, Sick Bodies, pp.243

performing even better in the academic spheres than male ones. The majors reserved only for men like engineering, management, business administration start being overflowed by female students and future practitioners.
In the capitalist west a similar development has taken place. Women start recognizing their importance for society. They began establishing unions and create initiatives for enhancing their own role in political and economic matters. The rise of feminism was the most powerful development after the Second World War. Women emancipation and fight for equality was decisive for the creation of the new welfare state. The traditional authority of the male has been denounced, even threatened. The new constitutions were as already mentioned away from the morality preached by the Church, putting an emphasis on the equal roles in the new society played by the male and female citizens. Moreover, the rise of individualism above collectivism put a strong underline upon women’s selfishness, ambition, and fierce competition with men for career advancement and realization.
After the end of the cold war and respectively the end of the clear separation between East and West the feminist emancipation trend continued with even more ardent decisiveness. It has become increasingly difficult for the state to make women abandon their careers and produce babies. The woman-housewife was a forgotten model already. Moreover, with the invention of the baby pill and the widespread abortion (already legal in most countries) the role of the women has changed even more dramatically. They can control the nature and escape from their reserved role as baby producers and house-servants.
Today what is clearly evident is almost full equality between the sexes in almost every sphere of life. Issues which were taboos a century ago like women’s sexuality, women’s leadership, women’s political stand and economic importance today are part of our belief systems, and are accepted without even the smallest surprise or thought of inappropriateness. Today women smoke, display their bodies, play box or karate, and at the working place men are under their supervision or control.
Conclusions
With the advent of the industrial era came a profound transformation of widespread societal values. The traditional way of living and thinking was transformed. The role of state became more central within people’s lives versus the strongly decreased role of the church and religion. The two world catastrophes in the middle of the 20th century further changed the traditional beliefs within the societies. Along with the devastating consequences after the wars came the true realization of the need of democracy and equality between the sexes. Except this idealistic vision came the more practical concept connected with the aims of the cold war. The two competing blocks in their desire to subdue the other and become the world’s hyper power desperately needed both resources and mind potential, which gave way to increased opportunities for women. This trend continues almost 16 years after the official end of the Cold war. The mentality of today’s nations, respectively the belief system of the individual today accepts increased equality between genders and absolute equal opportunities and rights allowed t them. What is the most important thing for today’s societies is economic development and competition for if not global at least continental leadership in production levels, technological development and stable political environment. Thus, the belief system of the post-industrial societies is strictly based upon these targets. For achievement of better living conditions and consumer satisfaction what is needed both politically (stable democratic environment) and economically (use of any possible potential) is respect toward the Individual – no matter what gender he/she is. Thus, the role of gender in the belief systems of the post-industrial society even historically investigated is strictly connected to the pursuit of stable political environment and higher economic efficiency. The absolute equality between the genders will assure both conditions to be eventually fulfilled.

Yana Popkostova

All the various religions no matter how different they are between each other in values, beliefs and goals use the human body as the main symbol of identity through which they deliver their messages. All of the rituals are indispensably connected to the human body, because only it can truly distinguish one ritual from the other, and only it is part of the society toward which the religion is directed, and from which the religion brings its followers. This clear distinction between the rituals exercised by different religious groups but directed essentially to the society is there in order to separate the different religions and their followers, and to draw the boundaries among them. The religious identity of a person, and its manifestations can be exercised thorough special rules, ways of clothing, and eating, or through protest towards the existing widespread political and social structures.
The question of identity is a fundamental one which can be compared in significance to the popular dilemma “to be or not to be”. The same biological body, created at the same way, and guided throughout its life by the same mechanisms can feel so differently inside. Exactly this different spiritual self-imaging differentiates people in separate groups which are fiercely defending their own, peculiar identity. People are devoting in most cases their identity, and individualism in certain aspects in order to serve the group’s interests better. The groups are striving to preserve their peculiarness by answering the same questions from contradicting angles. Exactly this different answers are what put the boundaries around the different groups. If one wants to belong to a particular group he/she would be required to answer to the same everyday questions from the established group perspective. No matter how exclusionary a group may be, there are certain recognized memberships rules that are the fundamental points of differentiation from all of the others, and that may be transformed in time and adapted to the new requirements, but rarely changed completely. As mentioned in the previous sentence “the others” are the “thing” that defines “us”. The encounter with someone who is totally different than me (or my group) is the basic point at which I can define myself as part of a certain whole which is different than the other whole. The boundaries between different groups can either be physical, or conceptual. In most cases, though the physical and conceptual boundaries are blurred into one existing boundary. They are interconnected, and it is almost impossible one to exist without the other. The physical uniqueness is a precondition for certain conceptual peculiarity, and vise versa – the rareness of a conceptual belief makes one looks different physically or establishes structures that are symbols of one’s matchless belief. As an example of this interconnectedness I will briefly summarize an argument I had with a friend not long ago about the beautiful women and their mind potential. As an anti-emancipist his argument was that 90% of the really beautiful women don’t have any ambition for academic development and achievements. I was arguing against that supporting my thesis with the argument that the mind is not connected to the outlook, and the fact that most of the eminent beautiful women are not extremely smart is just a mere coincidence. Unfortunately, I admit that I lost the argument. Though, of course there are thousands good-looking women with marvelous achievements in the academic sphere a rule of thumb is that most of the truly successful academically women are not that interested in the 90-60-90 measures of their bodies, don’t waste hours for deciding which color of lipstick they should put, and spend more time above the books than in front of the mirror. Nice-looking girls stick together because they are attracted to each other. They are similar in outlook and interests, and vise versa their outlook sometimes is a precondition for their interests (in order to continue looking great it is better to read fashionable magazines than analysis on Kant’s existentialism). These type of girls cannot be part of the group of the intelligent women, first because they will feel their own inferiority (conceptual boundary), and second they will differ drastically in their outlook (physical boundary). And of course it is evident that if some spends 5 hours per day in front of the mirror, and in desperate dilemmas which skirt is best for today, this person will not be able to devote time for reading. Gradually the person’s mind is completely unable to grasp any kind of serious academic material. Thus, the limits become clear, and the communication with people outside of this group is diminished to minimum.
Not all of the time though the social boundaries are so strict and unmanageable. If we use the above example there is evidence of merging of members of the two groups – the smart and the beautiful. The fancy dresses which were a marking characteristic of the “beautiful” girls (and purely expressing their identity) today are bought by the smart, and more and more beautiful girls find their place in educational institutions. In this merge for sure both sides will gain mutual benefits (there is even such a show on the television), but unfortunately such cases are extremely rare, and though in today’s world it is increasingly more and more difficult to be exclusionary and non-receptive to the other, when groups are extremely different even when the boundaries are a little bit blurred the distinction stays. Negotiating boundaries is exercised when one of the existing groups is feeling threatened or its power and influence above its members has been diminishing. If this happen the group is ready to change part of the rituals, to try to deliver its message to outsiders, to make some concessions (not fundamental changes) to the rules of membership, and to try to convert more people into its beliefs. A powerful example in this direction can be the recent actions led by the Vatican. The new pope started a campaign of modernizing the Christianity, and making it more accessible to people of today’s world. Faced with fierce opposition from the most conservative members of the church, who wanted to preserve the purity and initial holy rituals and exclusivity of the church, the pope realized that the Christianity is loosing ground, that less and less people pay attention to the religion, and less and less people can find it useful in today’s globalized world. Thus, it is essential for a belief to grow, and to transform itself with the times in which it lives. Rituals and traditions that were applicable 100 years ago cannot find place today. The modernizing campaign of the Christian faith, and the attempt of the Pope to make it more understandable and attracting to modern people, without changing its basic rules and beliefs is an honored example of negotiating boundaries in order to preserve the belief.
The last, and maybe the most powerful example of the strive for exclusion and difference of the various belief’s systems is the ways in which physical boundaries, that deliver spiritual messages are used to contest existing political practices and widespread understandings. The example of the medieval women-ascetics is an interesting one. These women totally devoted to God were starving in order to reach sanctity, to denote their female biology, and to contradict their inferior gender role in a patriarchal society. Thus, their obsession with physical suffering which was a way to show their strong belief, and to deliver the religion’s messages transformed itself into a powerful challenge to the existing political structures which put the women on an inferior level than the men. These women were trying to achieve sanctity through starvation. The explicit connection developed by W. Davis in his book Holy Anorexia between holiness and starvation made this women determined to show first of all their devotion to God, secondly to show to the world that women can achieve holiness, and respectively women are not inferior than men. Maybe these women ascetics were the first feminists, who were “manipulating private and public symbols as to contest the boundaries of gender and conventional female roles.” Thus, by exercising one’s religious beliefs one is able to deliver political messages and to challenge the existing system, to apply non-violent dissidence and to achieve universal goals in a piecemeal manner.
There are many instances in which we will be able to identify symbolism, and the use of it as a weapon for maintaining or transforming social boundaries. The manifestations of different beliefs are the defining characteristic of the peculiarity of the belief, and its distinction from the other similar movements. According to one’s own value system the person is free to choose which religious group best fit his/her interests. Moreover, the person will be able to understand whether he/she is appropriate for the specific group by analyzing the membership rules. In some cases these rules are extremely harsh and difficult to pass, in others they are almost not visibly existing, but in either case one have to share these rules, and the beliefs that they defend in order to become part of the group, and to identify him/herself as an individual from this group as opposing to one from another group. As the essay showed there are cases when the boundaries between different groups are blurred so that the belief is strengthened or most correctly adapted to the changing environment which will require negotiating of boundaries and slight transformation of identities. This transformation will not change the belief or the fundamental principles of the specific group, it will just make it fit into the changing environment. The symbolism of various religion movements can be also used as a wind of change, as a powerful, non-violent instrument of dissidence against the widespread political practices. The silent feminist opposition of the medieval women-ascetics best exemplifies this trend.
After all that has been said to conclude with I will say that “Power means ability to adapt”. Power implies more physical than spiritual activity, but I am convinced into the interdependence of the two concepts. If a religious movements want to preserve its identity and power it will need to define its boundaries, to have some membership rules which will distinct its members from the members of the other religious group. Though, these boundaries should be flexible and susceptible to life transformation. The religious movement should be able to negotiate its boundaries in order to find its place with the same vigor and strength in the changed physical environment. Moreover, in order to be powerful the religious group should be able to apply its symbolism in the political side of the world, so that to be able to participate in the practical world of its followers and to contest widespread injustices or wrongdoings. A combination of all these three concepts should be evident in order for a religious group to maintain its identity, and to preserve its power throughout the constantly changing global environment.

References:
Anthropology of Religion (2000) Fiona Bowie-Chapter#3